"Developing PEHNA's Gender Concept - Gender and Pastoralism in Uganda"

Mwaka D. et al , Ref. No 174

This paper surveys conceptual debates on gender, environment and pastoralism. It critically looks at eco-feminism, feminist environmentalism and role theory, and gender-based division of labour.

The research was conducted in order to bridge the gap in information on gender relations in pastoral societies in arid, semi arid and sub-humid environments. The foci of the study are the different population groups among Ugandan pastoralists. It draws out common characteristics shared by the groups but also the differences that exist and offers a number of explanations drawn from political, socio-economic and environmental situations that prevail within these groups.

The paper highlights differences relating to the division of labour among women of the Karimajong and Hima groups. It also points out that these differences need further investigation.

The section on kinship and marriage equally tries to give some lead on areas of investigation: e.g.. are the traditions of polygamy and polyandry undergoing changes now that there is an awareness of Aids? Is Aids contributing to changes in sexual behaviour among pastoralists?

As well as being the most marginalised within an already marginalised group, pastoral women suffer particular disadvantages with regards to educational provision, health provision and practices such as female circumcision.

A number of these specific points need to be answered in order for women to gain a position of lesser dependence on men, the environment and livestock culture.

Some recommendations for further areas of research conclude this study. We can note among them:

- Causes of varying patterns in pastoralism and gender relations. What are the policy implications?

- How far has commercialisation of pastoral economies had any effect on women's activities?

- Finally, could a base line survey of pastoral women in the Horn be a useful part of the research?

"Livestock Trade in the Pastoral Economy: Prospects for the Horn of Africa"

by M. Dolal, Ref. No 020

Livestock trading has existed for centuries in the Horn of Africa and to this day remains an important part of the economic activity of the region and the occupation of a large percentage of the population.

Pastoralism has, however, been subjected to a lot of criticisms, first during the time of colonial domination and more recently during periods of famine when it was said to be responsible for the degradation of the environment.

This study surveys the different approaches which have been put forward in the various IGADD countries vis à vis the pastoralist community.

During 1960s and 70s in Sudan, large-scale development projects failed to integrate the pastoralist sector. There was an attempt to reverse the situation later by providing services, improving stock etc. Nevertheless, this too was relatively unsuccessful because it was dictated by short-term economic gains and was over-ambitious.

In Somalia pastoralism is also an important sector contributing to the national economy. Some efforts were made to eradicate diseases, to make water available and generally to improve livestock. Over the years however, a bigger share was given to agricultural development at the expense of pastoralism.

The author argues that herder-centred development projects are the key to the expanding of trade in the region, in particular towards the oil-rich countries.

"Pastoralism and Land Tenure Systems in the Horn of Africa - A Case Study in Eritrea: Labka District, Sahil Province"

by Wudassie Yohannes Ref. No 058

The study proposes to look at the present state of livestock husbandry and the reasons for its decline. Both traditional land tenure systems and the contemporary policies of the new government are reviewed. An analysis of their implications on the movement of pastoralists as well as a number of recommendations are put forward.

The Labka District where the case study was carried out suffers from severe erosion. The majority of the population lives in the highland and the rest is divided between the coastal plain and the escarpment. The age structure of the population was adversely affected by the long war because the active population was depleted by recruitment to the military. As a result there are now 130 dependents for every 100 active persons. The level of education is very low - again war caused very severe disruption and women are generally less educated than men.

The various forms of land tenure which had existed since the colonial domination were changed when Eritrea lost its federal status in the 1960s. In 1970s the EPLF began land redistribution of the liberated areas on the basis of family size. Land was also given to landless pastoralists and for the first time to women.

However redistribution of land is not without presenting problems. In several Kebila, disputes have occurred between those who claim ownership rights dating back to the Italian domination and those who have recently been given land.

The author interviewed elders who said that decisions about claiming back the land have been referred to central government. Competition for land between cultivators and pastoralists is however, increasing because areas are being cleared to be converted into farmland. This has a negative effect on rangelands and on the life chances of pastoralists.

The Eritrean government new Proclamation on Land Tenure declared that land belongs to the state and that its allocation is the responsibility of the government. Nevertheless some difficulties can be anticipated if areas which had hitherto been dominated by pastoralists are given over to crop production. In addition the alluvial plains have largely been used for crop production by individual entrepreneurs and redistribution is likely to displease those who have invested both material and human resources there.

The following recommendations are included:

- Diversification of the economic sectors should form the basis for development of pastoral areas.

- Livestock and rangeland management should be introduced given that natural pastures have deteriorated so much

- Cultivators should be encouraged to develop irrigated agriculture in alluvial plains and leave the rest for rangeland

"Land Tenure Systems in Ethiopia - with a Case Study of the Ogaden"

Yacob Arsano, Ref. No 073

This historical overview of the Ethiopian land tenure system gives a detailed background to the land situation through to the present day.

Throughout history the peasantry in Ethiopia was heavily burdened with taxes and services which they had to provide for the state and church. In addition, right until the beginning of the 20th century, conquests resulted in the capture of many people who were enslaved.

The 1931 Constitution and Land Policy declared that all powers were vested in th Emperor who had the prerogative to grant titles and privileges and pension land. Whole areas which had traditionally been agro-pastoral and pastoral land were granted by the state to local rulers and state employees.

Neither the 1955 Constitution, the 1960 Civil Code, the 1975 Land Reform nor the 1988 Constituion seemed to have in any way improved the situation of the pastoral community. On the contrary they entrenched the power of the state. More recently the1991 transitional government's economic policy document, refers to the situation of pastoralists "as areas of special problems" but does not say anything about the legal and institutional issues of access to land. In 1994, however, the Consitution referred specifically to the Ethiopian pastoralists as having a right to free land for grazing and having a right not to be displaced but still the state was declared owner of the land.

The Ogaden case study:

The inhabitants of the region are mostly Somali people whose society is based on clanship.

Water is a scarce resource in the region and traditionally determines the mobility of the pastoralists. The incidence of water harvesting for money transaction is increasing. Pastoralists are supposed only to have usufruct right of the land but believe that the land belongs to them. This is source of tension between them and the state.

Recently further unrest took place because land which agropastoralists wanted to use was given over to open camps for returnees. The concentration of people on these camps gives rise to a number of environmental problems and suppresses the pastoralsits means of survival. In addition, this region is one where natural gas and oil may be extracted in the future and that will further curtail their activities.

The pressure on land will be further exarcebated by the government trying to settle returnees who, for the majority, would like to live off the land. Some have customary rights to it while others do not but still want to work the land.

The author concludes this study with a number of recommendations:

- there is a pressing need to devise an appropriate land tenure policy which will curb the privatisation of pastures for agricultural use

- a proper system of compensation must be devised in cases where land is needed for large-scale socio economic development activities to facilitate the already existing sedentarisation of pastoralists

- clearly to determine pastoralists’ rights and obligations both towards the state and other pastoralists groups

PENHA should be involved in research endeavours on pastoral development in Ethiopia where new thinking is very much needed. In addition further research based on fieldwork should be considered in order to produce critical policy alternatives for pastoral development and land tenure.

"Pastoralism and Land Tenure Systems in the Horn of Africa - report of Survey Conducted in Mensura Area"

by Zerabruk Tesfamariam , Ref. No 057

The paper studies how pastoralists' way of life has changed over time and surveys land use systems and conflicts related to them . It investigates the implications of development policies on the population and suggests ways traditional land use systems and new policies spelt out in the Land Proclamation can be harmonised.

Initially animal husbandry was the only source of livelihood and people moved seasonally with their livestock. The traditional communal land ownership was disrupted by successive colonial land policies. The increase of farming activities gave rise to the need for an increase in farming land, particularly after the British started administering Eritrea. However, with the intensification of the war of liberation, farming activities were abandoned and people began having to rely on food-aid.

The grazing areas are said to be open and free for all but, the author notes, the indigenous population, mainly Beni Amer believe the land is theirs. Conflict and dispute over land have traditionally been resolved by village elders. Cattle, camels and goats remain close to the villages during the wet season but during the dry season camels and cattle are moved to distant grazing areas. Livestock husbandry is a very important source of income for the population. Goats and sheep are the most commonly sold and the money is used to purchase clothes, grain and other commodities.

The case study of Ad-Humed Arey was done by conducting interviews with heads of households. Whereas until 1960s the people of the area only tended livestock, today they do this alongside farming and try to supplement their income with other trading activities. The present government programme for the area is to improve livestock management practices, to introduce modern farms and to resettle refugees. Since the area is fertile there is potential to develop all these activities but it is important to involve the local population at an early stage in the planning in order to ensure their views are heard and they participate fully in the implementation of the projects .