A Step Towards the Designing of Pastoral Development Projects in the Horn of Africa.

Gessesse B., Ref No 017

Abstract:

This paper begins with an overview of the situation of pastoralists in the IGADD countries and of the effects of war and conflict on their lives.

It briefly reviews the diversity and social organisations of pastoralist societies in the region. It suggests how some governments' intervention has attempted to interfere with traditional leadership, sometimes with a view to include marginalised members from pastoralists' communities. Pastoralists, however, have often reverted to their traditional ways of organising.

After independence a number of countries adopted a 'modernisation' approach to development in which the state was seen as the main body responding to the needs of the rural poor generally and pastoralists in particular.

While national economies have benefited from the incorporation of the pastoral economy in the capitalist market, governments still continue to disregard the wishes of pastoralists and continue to formulate settlement policies as a precondition of the provision of basic services.

The document suggests that, in view of the failure of governments, the question of NGOs' involvement ought to be assessed. A distinction is made between the role of Northern-based NGOs and indigenous NGOs. The latter are faced with shortage of funds and lack of recognition from national and international governments and other organisations.

The paper then looks at trade, indigenous knowledge and community participation.

Trade has always been a feature of pastoral economies. Local and regional markets provide livestock and livestock produce to exchange for grain and clothes. In addition livestock is also used for traditional negotiations. Previously women had some power and responsibility in the control of household income and expenditure. Market-oriented economies have had a detrimental effect on the position of women. The paper shows how Maasai women in Kenya and Bahima women in Uganda have become more marginalised.

Indigenous knowledge and practices have enabled pastoralists to live in a hostile environment. Their knowledge of adaptive strategies through movement according to season has proved ecologically sustainable. But indigenous knowledge extends beyond plant and animal resources. Somali women use traditional skills for building shelter and for animal and human health care. In some countries, however, increased reliance on 'modern' practices has led to a decline of people's confidence in their skills. Since both sets of practices have strengths and limitations new projects should try to include both.

Participation, as defined by the majority of the 'development community', implies a certain number of cultural assumptions, according to the author. It may be difficult to practice in communities where the opinion of some members is valued more than that of others. Governments have not been forthcoming in seeking participation from pastoral communities. Some NGOs seem to be making some efforts to promote participation at the grassroot level but conflict of interests between them, governments and pastoralists often arise and ways need to be found to reconcile all parties.

The final part of the paper deals with the design of the small-scale projects which would concentrate on pastoral trade, indigenous knowledge and community participation. Recommendations include:

- to identify pastoral organisations and leadership and seek ways to encourage participation in the promotion of the projects; to identify the felt needs of pastoralists;

- to collect basic information on the prevailing drought, famine and conflicts with a view to introducing long term project initiatives;

- to facilitate collaboration with relevant NGOs and government departments.

Buffer Zone Management in the Horn of Africa - An Annex to : A Step Towards the Designing of Pastoral Development Projects in the Horn of Africa

Gessesse B., Ref No 017

Abstract

This paper critically assesses the impact of buffer zones in some of the Horn countries, their design and management and makes a number of recommendations for improving the current situation of people living in those buffer zones.

The author suggests that the first difficulty arises from the fact that buffer zones have not been adequately defined and that various concepts are attached to them depending on which ecological zone they are intended to cover.

Many conservationists working in those zones still adhere to the view that the ecological degradation in Africa is due to the increase of population and their approach tends to be one which promotes limiting population growth. On the whole they often neglect the human dimension of resource use. Rural communities are not involved in the planning of decisions that involve their own lives and have little power to get heard. Naturally their perception of government agencies and NGOs involved in conservation tends to be one where the environment is given precedence over people. The only viable approach is one that will include the local people's point of view.

Case studies from several countries highlight the controversial issues raised by the creation of buffer zones. The weakness of buffer management is being slowly acknowledged and points to a need for reconciling differences between conservation needs and the needs of the local population.

The paper concludes by recommending :

- more participatory approach research methodology to uncover current and past constraints of conservation strategies

- more use be made of indigenous knowledge

- revising state policy on land ownership

- a conservation approach which should address both short-term needs and long-term benefits

- a decentralised approach to development

This has implications for research: It points to the need for field-based research which will enable the design of sustainable buffer zone schemes.

"Pastoralists and Agropastoralists Loosing ground: a Horn of Africa Perspective"

Fre Z. Ref. No 010

Abstract

The paper looks at the questions of social versus environmental security and at pastoralists' ways of managing scarce resources in Eastern Sudan and Eritrea.

Some of the prevailing misconceptions about pastoralism are dealt with at the beginning of the paper. The author lists a number of points which should be considered by policy makers when dealing with pastoralism: pastoral production is based on some level of technology; pastoralists show a great degree of adaptation, strategies should be focused on a regional level.

Present policies see pastoralism in isolation rather than within the context of agro-ecological regimes. Pastoralists are seen as needing to be controlled which explains the prevalence of policies of sedentarisation of pastoral communities.

While the 1973-74 drought did not affect the study area much, the 1984 famine spread to the whole of the Horn with huge losses of livestock. In many areas of the Sahel the dwindling grazing and water resources have led to tension and in some cases to conflict.

Different pastoral groups exhibited different coping mechanisms. Long-range pastoralists on the whole fared better than settled or semi-settled groups. Some totally or partly abandoned pastoralism in favour of other work, some left pastoralism with a view to returning later. Finally, some of those who went to the urban centres have become destitute.

While technical interventions to develop pastoralism have mostly been limited to water development, breed improvement and large-scale veterinary campaigns, it is possible to envisage other strategies. The author suggests the following areas should be considered:

building on indigenous breeds and using pastoral information: this could in part be achieved through utilising the pastoralists' extensive knowledge and integrating it into a pilot training programme.

securing pastoral access: this should be done through government intervention to achieve demarcation of grazing territories and recognition of pastoral land and water rights.

alternative to pastoralism: pastoralism and agro-pastoralism are still envisaged as viable forms of land use and even where alternative sources of income have been available, re-investment in livestock is not uncommon. Where no viable alternatives to pastoralism exist, risk aversion should be pursued.

Key data on pastoral production is not available to planners and administrators. A strong regional and national data base would significantly help with better planning. Networks could also provide valuable information exchange.

Pastoralist communities have been neglected for too long in spite of their valuable economic contribution. By promoting a people-centred development approach, pastoralism could be made more viable.

'Concept Development on Gender Issues in the Sudan'

Mustafa, A. (1992) Ref No 171

Abstract

The use of gender as a tool of analysis should be regarded as essential both when assessing past policies and when planning future development strategies.

The study of pastoralist groups had been neglected for a long time and women within those groups have been even more invisible.

The author traces the roots of the biases that have plagued development phases since the 1970's with particular reference to Sudan.

The document identifies major research gaps in the literature: there is a need for an analysis which will make use of political economy perspectives of an awareness of changing circumstances among the population.

Oral history should be included in studies concerning Africa. Women's role as managers of natural resources continues to be ignored and that of women in developing survival mechanisms in times of stress is lacking.

There are a number of questions proposed for further research notably:

- pastoral production and the new export-oriented policy

- pastoral communities and education

- women's access to development inputs - comparative study between Beja women and Linkat women.

"Forto - Mogorayb: Report of an Evaluation"

T. Silkin, Z. Fre, S. King; Ref. No 050

The programme is located in south-western Eritrea. The Forto area is mainly occupied by the Beni Amer and Hdareb communities and the Mogorayb by the Nara.

The main thrust of the programmme was to improve crop production but since livestock production is significant in the area this is also studied in some detail. Some groups identify themselves as agropastoralists while others see themselves as pastoral nomads. In all cases, however, livestock plays an important part in the livelihood of people.

In both areas war and drought have had a serious impact of the economy and have forced people to rely on food aid. The programme was designed as an integrated programme to rehabilitate agricultural production and was designed to span a five-year period. The main agricultural activity was to rebuild terracing for crop cultivation, using stone and earth terracing which last longer than the wood terracing traditionally used. Participants were rewarded by food/cash for work scheme.

The Agricultural Rehabilitation Programmme replaced agricultural inputs lost by farmers during drought and war; namely tools, seeds and draft animals. The need for tools was met through opening forges to make and repair implements. Seeds were purchased locally wherever possible but in some cases had to be purchased in Sudan. Originally draft animals were mostly going to be oxen but the need to provide more camels was expressed and noted for future purchases. A programme of veterinary services was added and needs to be strengthened through training of more paravets..

Vegetable gardening hitherto unknown in the region was introduced as part of the programme but poor rainfall made it difficult for people successfully to maintain the crops.

Water scarcity which has plagued the lives of people was addressed by digging wells and attempting to provide small water catchment points but poor rainfall hampered their use. There is a need to provide water holes for livestock and additional wells in several areas.

Schooling in the Forto - Mogorayb district had been non existant since the beginning of the war except for a short period in 1985 and the project's objective was to open two schools in each district although the plan in now to open 3 in Mogorayb and 1 in Forto. The question of girls' education remains a contentious issue in Forto in particular and led to the closure of co-educational schools. Some adult education was also provided and the need for numeracy and literacy classes will be answered when classes resume.

The provision of health services was not subjected to technical evaluation as no health specialist was included in the team and only general observations were made.

The evaluation reviews the social impact of the programme.

Whereas a number of food for work schemes have been criticised because they draw people away from agricultural activities, in the case of this project this did not happen since the scheme applied to the improvement of agricultural land. Farmers thought the scheme was beneficial on several counts: it can be combined with other activities, offers reliable and regular work, keeps communities together since people do not have to travel for work outside, and offers an acceptable level of payment.

The evaluation argues that the programme mainly addressed the question of enhancing crop production and in so doing only tackled part of the problem of food security. It suggests that more attention should be paid to pastoralism which represents an important source of food security for households. This view is shared by participants who feel that pastoralism was not given enough prominance. The balance should be redressed by the work carried out by PENHA.

The impact on the environment may have been adeversely affected by some components of the programme which promoted a farming system which entailed clearing vegetation. The arrival of returnees from Sudan is perceived as putting added pressure on resources.

It is generally accepted that, given the focus of the programme and the position of women in Beni Amer and Nara communities, the programme could only have a limited impact on women. Some respondents however, drew particular attention to the fact that increased food security and cash for work had limited men's migration thus relieving women of the added burden which migration gives rise to. Women felt they had not been provided with enough grinding mills and that more should be provided. Added activities which women could undertake were: poultry production and back-yard gardening.

The development of social infrastructure was thought to be the most beneficial aspect of the programme which of course, is precisely what had been intended. It has allowed people to break their isolation and feel part of the wider national structure.

"An Essay on the Prospect of Peace in the Horn of Africa"

by Seyoum Gebre Selassie, Ref No 033

This essay makes a number of proposals for building lasting peace and close cooperation between states in the Horn region. Inter-state conflicts in the Horn have been few and most have been internal conflict.

Several reasons are invoked for this: the nature of the small-scale societies which are self-contained and self-sufficient; the fact that colonial powers did not attempt to integrate traditional leadership structures into the colonial state or to develop regional economic interdependence; the post independence choice for a one party state rather than attempting to share power among groups; the decline in the carrying capacity of the environment following the imbalance between population growth and social and economic development.

The author argues that there is a relative paucity of experience in collaborative problem-solving among the new states in the Horn notably around the question of water resources. In addition various countries have been engaged in nation-building efforts with different political motives.

A survey of demographic trends in the Horn countries shows that the size of the economically non-active population is greater than that of the economically active, that more women are entering the reproductive age, and that the demand for more social services and employment will grow as a result. Since most countries rely heavily on the agricultural sector, the pressure on life-sustaining resources will become greater as the population grows. The scarcity of land (both agricultural and grazing land) is bound to give rise to conflict. In the past, a number of countries have attempted to relocate people to different areas when communities were faced with shortage of land. Inevitably this created animosity between displaced and host communities who felt this was a threat to their resources.

The writer suggests a number of proposals to improve the peace prospects in the Horn:

- modernisation of the pastoral economy: this requires integrating the pastoral system with the market economy and managing pastoralism along sedentary and profitable lines. This in turn will impact on other industries such as dairying, meat packing, hide and skin processing.

- political integration: reconsidering the proposal of a federal system would seem a viable solution as the diversity betweeen the countries would allow for a degree of structural differentiation of the economy.

- a just and binding agreement about the use of rivers shared by several countries is a necessary to avoid further conflict among riparian states.