Pastoralism in the Horn of Africa - To Be or Not To Be: An Evolutionary Perspective By Zeremariam Fre (PhD), Lecturer at the UniversityCollegeLondon
and Executive Director of PENHA
Paper presented to the Japan Natural Science Science Programme Seminar on pastoralism, Nairobi, September 2008.
The paper provides a broad context to the current status of pastoralism in the Horn of Africa from an economic and resource competition/conflict perspective. It argues that traditional pastoralism as we know it (i.e. an environmentally/socially sustainable livelihood) is going through serious self generated and externally driven evolution process which may be irreversible thus changing the pastoralist production system as we knew it. This realisation the author believes is so fundamental if planners, researchers and funders wish to contribute to the well being of pastoral peoples in this region. Drawing from experiences from Eastern Sudan and Western Eritrea,the author argues that researchers and planners often ignore the above challenges and the changing livelihood parameters.
There is also growing evidence that pastoral peoples are in urban and peri-urban economic activities in a symbiotic manner with other groups. Pastoral peoples are not as marginalized as is often claimed by some academics and over the last 20 years we have seen considerable growth in pastoralist led civil society organisations both at the national and local level. Pastoral peoples have now their political constituencies and have say in political systems regardless of the nature of the ruling elite. The author demonstrates that pastoral peoples despite the evolution mentioned above possess tremendous skills in animal production/management and own productive breeds of livestock, which could form the basis for more sustainable people, centred development..The author believes that it is critical that we recognise and build on these opportunities thus promoting a new agenda for sustainable pastoral development. The full text as a pdf can be downloaded by clicking here. (65 kb)
Legislators and Livestock: A Comparative Analysis of Pastoralist Parliamentary Groups in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda
John Morton, Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, April 2005
Final Report of the NRI/PENHA Research Project on Pastoralist Parliamentary groups, funded by DFID's Livestock Production Programme and the CAPE Unite, African Union's Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources.
Involvement of Pastoralists in the Development of an Innovative Health Service System in their Areas.
Researcher: Yohannes Fassil
Taking the broader framework of health care defined by the Alma Ata Conference the author discusses how the concept of community involvement can be applied to the pastoralist community given its specific circumstances.
By recognising the existence of conflict of values and goals between the change agents and the clients and by understanding the structure of the pastoralist communtiy it is possible to provide a model which will succeed in delivering health services.
The author proposes the use of a wide range of methods to invove the community and suggests that this approach is equally relevant to the more settled urban communities who share many similarities.
Case Study on Pastoral Health Policy in Eritrea
Researchers: Dr Mineab Sibhatu and Dr Eyob Azaria
Years of conflict and the persistence of several years of drought and the ensuing large displacements of people have compounded the difficulties in providing health care in the country.
The government has attempted to organise a health service which encourages participation from communities and where essential amenities will be decentralized. Village health workers and traditional birth attendants will be trained and they will be responsible for educating the rural population on health matters.
There is of course an important body of knowledge held by traditional medicine but it is important to separate harmful practices from the rest and efforts are made to change these.
Pastoralists have been encouraged to make use of mobile health teams and to attend hospitals.
The State of HIV/AIDS in Eritrea
Researcher: Dr Tesfazion Negash
The present pandemic is taking a heavy toll on the population of Africa and until medical advance for curing the disease in found, Information Education and Communication remains the best way to contain the epidemicc and prevent further spreading.
While the number of cases reported by 1995 had greatly increased from the time of the first reported case, there is no doubt that a lot of under reporting persists.
Pastoralists too, are exposed to the disease. Campaigns are being run jointly by the Minsitry of Health and external agencies.
The paper recommends that research on sexual behaviour among the pastoralists special education and information programmes and the elimination of poverty and iliteracy, to name a few, are essential to protect pastoralists from AIDS.
Pastoral Health Policy Issues in Ethiopia.
Researcher: Dr Gebremedin Gebreselassie
Concentrating on the Afar population, the author examines the causes of health problems in the region, the state of the existing health and veterinary services and recommends measures to improve present conditions.
The pastoralist community is scattered over a large area and health provision is mostly to be found close to roads, therefore leaving a large part of the population without access. Little has been done to address the health needs of pastoral people.
Similarly veterinary services do not reach large part of the animal population.
Traditional medecine is used to treat various ailments but some practices can have undesirable effects.
The situation is one which needs to be remedied. As is often the case, however, the question of whether development or health provision should be given precedence has not allowed room for a more pragmatic approach which argues that a holistic and integrated strategy is needed.
Health and environmental education could go a long way towards improving the situation. Training pastoralists in preventive and remedial healthcare would be an effective way to do this. However the long-term goal should be that of a development strategy in which nomadism would be replaced by mixed animal and crop husbandry.
Problems of Zoonoses among Pastoralists
Researcher: Dr Teclemariam Zeggu
The paper highlights why zoonoses are commonly found among pastoralists. The author lists the various diseases and their cures and importantly offers recommendations for both short term and long term strategies.
The provision of water points for human and livestock use in order to decrease movement and animal concentration is seen as a necessary short-term measure and would allow better surveillance and the implementation of control programmes.
Broader long-term programmes should run alongside educational and economic improvement measures to stop nomadism.
Significance of Traditional Medecine, the Problems and Appproaches to its Development.
Researcher: Dr Dawit Abebe
The paper discusses the significance of indegenous medecine and the need to preserve this body of knowledge which is danger of disappearing. At the same time developing countries are under pressure from the rest of the world who sees the potential for the use of plants for pharmaceutical purposes.
In the Third World, however, the situation is not one of choice or of going ‘back to nature’. The use of traditional medecine fulfills basic health needs relatively cheaply.
The new generation is not being handed down the knowledge accumulated in indigenous medecine. It is necessary to begin programmes of research that will determine the efficacy and safety of plants. This is likely to uncover new substances which will complement if not replace drugs which are at present purchased from the West.
An urgent task is to collect and compile traditional healthcare knowledge before it is lost.
Traditional Healers in Somalia
Researcher: Sadia Ahmed
Traditional healing practices are widespread in rural areas. Practioners vary from those who perform bone setting, midwives, religious healers and those who practice magic.
The author mostly discusses the idea of spirit pacification as therapy in the Somali context. Various forms of cures are prescribed for the cure of hysterical patients.
With the growing role played by modern health care this form of healing ought to decline. Nevertheless attempts are being made at combining both abd the Ministry of Health has decided to incorporate traditional medecine with conventional health care. Healers are registered and monitored.
Case Study on Pastoral health Policy Issues in the Sudan
Researcher: Dr Khamil Mirghanie
This paper looks at the situation of pastoralists involved in cattle and camel rearing. Health problems in these communities are environmentally and culturally determined with tuberculosis and malnutrition as the main problems.
The nomadic population is around 20% of the total but because their migration patterns vary greatly, mobile PHC has been seen as the only practical option. Modern health care is very limited and a traditional system of birth attendants, herbalists, bone setters and spiritual healers still prevails.
Droughts and other catstrophes have claimed the lives of many pastoralists but apart from some relief work little has been done.
General distrust between governmental and non-governmental bodies make it difficult to move towards more developmentak activities.
Health Status of Pastoral Women in the Sudan
Researchers: Dr Azia El Neima and Aisha Mustafa
Although no systematic study has been carried out in the Sudan, women are known to make up a significant proportion of the traditional healers.
The paper highlights the difficulty in reaching pastoral women in the delivering of health care. Some programmes are provided jointly by government and aid agencies and focus on reproductive health, mother and child health and PHC.
The government has decided that MCH programmes should be devolved to the regions.
The author offers the following recommendations:
collection and documentation of pastoralists’ traditonal knowledge, integration of traditional and conventional health, support of women in their effort to cultivate traditional plants, introduction of mobile health care system among others.
Pastoralism and Land Tenure Systems in Eritrea - Challenges and Opportunities - An Overview
Researchers: Zeremariam Fre and Zerabruk Tesfemariam
The paper points out that the usual division between lowland and highland proposed to explain pastoral and agricultural systems in Eritrea is misleading. Within the groups that occupy these areas there are cultural and production variables.
The research outlines the different land tenure systems.
The communal land holding or Diesa is found mainly in Central Highland. All land is shared equally by the households in the village. Married men as head of households are given the land whereas women can claim a share only in very particular cases. This system has the merit of being egalitarian but as redistribution occurs periodically there is no icentive for long-term investment.
Private holding known as Risti or Tsilmi was dominant in Seraye before the Derg reform. Households permanently own the land which is passed on to the male descendant. When there are several descendants the land is divided among them.
Finally the Dominalie or state land created by the Italian colonial system where access is based on traditional customs and laws, found in the Lowlands and some selected areas of the Highlands.
The problems faced by Eritrea in the period of post-war reconstruction are many-fold. There is acute shortage of land in the plateau region, displaced pastoralists, refugees who need to be resettled and shortages of water and fodder. In the areas where horticultural crops are being developed this conflicts with pastoralists’ way of life whereas in other areas crop and livestock systems are of mutual benefit.
With pressure from population increase, the traditional land tenure laws can no longer apply. The present government wants to put into place a land tenure system which needs to be entirely rethought while maintaining easy access to land.
Case Study in Mensura District in the Barka Province.
Researcher: Zerabruk Tesfemariam
The author offers an overview of land tenure system during the colonial regime, the changes in pastoral and agro-pastoral way of life and the implications this has for future development policies.
War and drought have forced those who lived purely on livestock to change towards an agro-pastoral way of life. Increase in farming increases the need for farmland.
Between Eritrea getting independence and the time the study was conducted no new allocation of land had yet taken place.
There are different perceptions about the future of pastoralism depending on the respondant’s age. Younger members of the community view a more settled way of life as their future and think that this would provide them with access to healthcare, education and social services. The elders, however still maintain that there can be no life without livestock and want to continue with livestock production. They would like access to veterinary services and would want more wells.
Government plans for the area include the introduction of better livestock management, modern farms and the resettlement of returning refugees. The government has already forged ahead with some new services but, the author urges, people should be involved in the planning at an early stage in order to ensure their support.
Case Study - Hazemo Region of Eritrea
Researcher: Tesfay Haile
This paper analyses the situation in Hazemo which is inhabited by Saho, Tigre and Tigrinya people. As in other regions the standards of living have deteriorated. Pastoralists’ way of life has been altered and includes more agricultural activities than previously.
In the past people of the region shared the levy for taxes equally among themselves and with the predominance of pastoralists among land users surplus was collected thus relieving the rest of the community of some of the tax burden.
People still use traditional methods of conflict resolution as far as possible and believe that legal means is only the last resort.
The new Land Tenure Proclamation which abolishes existing boundaries between villages allowing each individual to access sufficient land means that the region of Hazemo will attract mechanised agricultural activities.
Case Study : Labka District, Sahil Province
Researcher: Wudassie Yohannnes
Livestock husbandry as a major source of livelihood is no longer and prevalent and here as in other regions changes have an incidence on the rest of the population.
Communal management of grazing land is being eroded with the increase of highland peasants in the pastoral areas. Land allocation and management is gradually taken over by individuals or kinship groups.
This area suffers from erosion with the majority of the population concentrated in the highlands. Prolonged war has resulted in very low education levels and an ageing population. Rangeland is collectively owned and farming land is privately owned.
In the 1970s the EPLF began a redistribution of the land according to family size. Some land was given to landless pastoralists and for the first time to women. This, however, gave rise to disputes between those who had newly-allocated land and those who claimed rights dating back to earlier times.
As rangeland is being converted into farmland pastoralists are being deprived of their means of livelihood.
The author suggests that various measures should be adopted. They include: diversifying the economic activities of pastoral areas, livestock and rangeland management to stop the deterioration of natural pastures, introducing irrigated agriculture in the alluvial plains in order to preserve rangeland.
Pastoralism and Land Tenure System in the Horn of Africa: A comparative Overview.
Researcher: Seyoum Gebre Selassie
This paper looks at the history of land ownership in Ethiopia, Eritrea and the Sudan and suggests ways of arresting pastoralists’ marginalisation in the Horn countries.
Retracing the history of the region the author shows that private ownership is a recent development linked to the colonial system of taxation.
In Eritrea livestock is the mainstay of pastoralist economy and contributes to the national economy. But environmental deterioration, demographic pressure and the ravage of war mean that diverse needs must be met in an equitable way.
In the Sudan too, land used to be communally owned but the move to mechanised agriculture has altered the lives of pastoral people. After independence and with the abolition of the Native Administration, land was made available to anyone. This opened the way for entrepreneurs who started the commercialisation of agricutlture and animal husbandry. In the Sudan, as in other countries of the Horn, this rapid modernisation resulted in the displacement of pastoralists in large numbers. All are faced with the same problem of putting into place new development policies which will put an end to this marginalisation of pastoralists.
Possible solutions could be:
- to find alternative land use strategies which promote develpopment in the livestock sector while reducing the vulnerability of pastoralists to demand for land.
- to devise a system of production in the livestock sector which can bring increased returns to producers and the whole of the economy. This should be done by involving the pastoral people in the process.
The author concludes by recommending that this should be supported by policy-oriented research which would increase knowledge of how indigenous systems and problem-solving mechanisms work and to establish an inventory of indigenous technical knowledge which can be applied in devising development plans.
Reflections on Ethiopian Experience: Ogaden Case
Researcher: Yacob Arsano
The paper describes how the tension between groups arising from new land tenure systems affects this region of Ethiopia. As elsewhere, both customary and modern land tenure laws operate side by side. Privatisation of land is seen as a way of survival by many as population increases and land and water resources dwindle. In addition, some pastoralists and returnees are also turning to farming activities adding to the demand for farmland.
This huge area of the country offers both wet season grazing and dry season grazing. Over time the permanent watering points and settlements have become over exploited and the higher areas offer better range potential. These places are foci of conflicts over land grabbing. Traditionally women have not owned property and this applies to livestock. There are indications that they would like to engage in crop cultivation but this is dependent on enough land being available.
Even though land tenure policy is enshrined in the Constitution efforts need to be made to halt the deterioration of pastoralists’ livelihood. Otherwise, conflicts will continue to flare up and will put the peace of the region at risk.
Here too the author suggests that development policies should take into account the various dimensions of the problem.
A Case Study of the Upper Awash Valley
Researcher: Claudia Futterknecht
Until the early 1950’s the Karayu and Afar were dominant land users in the area. With the creaation of irrigation schemes and the settling of the Ittu in the area conditions for the pastoralists deteriorated.
An increase in inter-tribal conflicts and conflictc between population groups and authorities has also risen. In order to restore trust between local and national authorities the author suggests possible ways of solving the problems. She argues that benefit-sharing schemes could improve relations between the Awash Park authorities and people and could improve the living conditions of the communities. It would also help ensure that the park and conservation areas are left undisturbed by local communities. The author stresses the importance of community participation in benefit-sharing programmes.
Experience of Pastoral Land Tenure in Tanzania: No Future Without Land.
Researcher: Charles Lane
Conditions for pasotralists are deteriorating rapidly. The villagisation programme of the 1970’s restricted their movement and meant that they lost their land to agriculture. As a consequence they are finding it difficult to cope and are a very marginalised group.
Pastoral development is still based on misconceptions about inefficient land use by pastoralists. In addition their contribution to the national economy is greatly underestimated.
The question of women’s role and rights in land management is not understood and not taken into account in the development of land policies. Traditional support mechanisms have broken down. Furthermore whereas women used to be in co-operatives this is no longer true .
The author warns that evidence elsewhere in Africa shows that unless pastoralists defend their land not only will they face greater hardship but also they will see the disappearance of their culture and the break up of their communities. It is essential to rethink in the administration of pastoral lands and to put into place policies for the use of rangelands.
Finally the pastoral communities and their representative organisations need to be given support to take up the issue of land rights to their customaary lands. Assistance is the key to the survival of pastoralists.
The Kenyan Experiences
Researcher: Peter Karinge
The question of land tenure in Kenya is a complex one because of the different systems that exist side by side. This state of affairs has contributed in a significant way towards environmental degradation and the depletion of natural resources.
There are three systems of tenure: customary tenure, individual tenure and public tenure. But, the author argues, this multiplicity of systems allows for flexibility building on the strengths of these tenure regimes and eliminating their weaknesses.
Registration of land provides an opportunity for preparing a land tax system as well as a chance to establish a land resource inventory to monitor the nature and quality of land in the different ecological regions. A number of lessons and recommendation are made including:
* private landowners shoould have a reponsibility ot put their land to its best use
* land tax would force speculators to either sell or rent paart of their land to meet thei tax demands thus giving the chance for more productive farmers to work the land.
* taxation revenue could be used for developing infrastructure and extension services. Tenure regimes must take into account the culture and local needs of the inhabitants.
In arid and semi-arid lands emphasis should be to build on the systems which are known to succeed in this environment. All land use legislation needs to be reviewed in order to manage the environment more effectively.
It is acknowledged that the questions of land degradation and property rights are linked. Both common and private property regimes appear to provide viable solutions depending on circumstances and customary and modern aspects of tenure try to exist side by side.
Land tenure and land use policies should aim to devolve control over natural resource to local level to achieve sustainable resource management.
Community institutions must be recognised in legislation of land administration to allow more direct participation.
Legal administrative and institutional reforms are needed to support land reform processes to do away with the contradictions and gaps in land administration.
The Keren workshop report includes minutes of the 3 working groups.
Historically the dominant system of land tenure in the northern regions of Ethiopia was the Rist in which kinship groups communally owned land. Land was held in the name of the Emperor. The Church was the other major land owner.
Whilst Rist did not specifically prohibit the transfer of land for sale in practice it was difficult.
In the late 19th century the empire consolidated itself and absorbed the southern regions into the central state. But in the south, the whole population was made gabbar dispossessing them of any rights and making them into serfs.
After the restoration of the monarchy in 1941 pastoral land which was considered potentially arable was distributed to those who had fought against the Italians. In the valleys, pastoral land was used for mechanised agriculture. Large numbers of pastoralists were displaced to more marginal areas.
Various proclamations were made about land ownership and with every one pastoralists seem to lose more ground.
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia of 1994 does recognise pastoralists’ rights to free land for grazing and cultivation as well as a right not to be displaced from their own lands. Given the history of conflict over land tenure issues in the past it is important that new land policy should provide for state-owned, privately owned and communally owned land systems which exist side by side and provide a basis for development.
Land Tenure in the Somali Region of Ethiopia
Researcher: Yacob Arsano
The Somali region is the largest pastoral area and is inhabited by ethnic Somali pastoralists. The dominant system is pastoralism complemented by agro-pastoral and commercial activities.
Somali life is based on membership of a clan and among pastoralists, this regulates access to land and water. Pastoralists move between areas according to the availability of water. Streams, ponds and wells are communally used and access is free to clan members.
As in other areas, rangeland resources vary between well-endowed areas, which tend to be over used, and less well-endowed areas, which tend to be disregarded.
Contradictions between the state and the pastoralists over ownership of land persist; pastoralists claiming that they do not owe money for taxes as land has always been their and the state which views pastoralists as having occupational rights which incur tax
Changes are occuring for several reasons in this region. As elsewhere, there is increase in population and environmental changes are occuring. More people are turning to agriculture and livestock economy is supplemented by mixed farming. In addition, conflict in Somalia has meant an influx of refugees in this region adding further pressure over resources. Land enclosure has led to serious conflict with numerous casualties.
In this changing social environment women have started to make themselves heard and are beginning to claim their rights as individuals.
New developments such as oil and natural gas exploitation have also claimed some land which was previously used as pasture.
All these contribute to the reaction of pastoralists who made use of the collapse of law and order in 1992 to repossess land.
It is hoped that federalism in the country and the granting of self-administration to the regions will make it possible for people to find ways to reconcile state and community interests and make it possible for pastoralism to develop in a peaceful way.
Land tenure Systems and their Effect on the Afar
Researcher: Ayalew Gebre
This region was traditionally occupied by the Afar people who used land communally. Over the years, successive governments realising the potential of the Awash valley where the Afar grazed their herds have encouraged large-scale agricultural entreprises to the area.
The Awash Valley Authority was made responsible for development in 1962 and this put further pressure on land used by pastoralists during dry season. However, neither alternatives nor money was offered as compensation. This situation was aggravated by the establishement of the National Park in 1966 and the Afar pastoralists have been involved in confrontations with the Park authorities on numerous occasions.
In less than 10 years of existence the AWA had already converted almost ¼ of the designated land to agriculture and wildlife conservation which led to rapid loss of natural resources and drought.
Because of land expropriation, the Afar long-established solidarity began to suffer. Frictions developed over shared resources and changes towards individual tenure began to be more widespread.
In 1974, some fundamental changes in tenure were made and in 1975, nationalisation of rural and urban land was proclaimed. The Awash Valley saw further expansion of commercial agriculture.
When the Transitional Government took over, land reform was one of the essential questions to resolve. It declared that all land belonged to the people of Ethiopia through the agency of the state but made provision for some individuals and companies to continue their activities. The feeling of insecurity among the Afar was alleviated by a consitutional declaration which protected them from eviction from their traditional lands.
Some attempts were made at compensating them for previous losses by offering settlement schemes and providing irrigated pasture. For a number of reasons, this failed.
The author suggests that in the future, success could be achieved if irrigated agriculture and pastoralism could be practiced side by side. This could be done by making husbandry economically viable and would allow activities such as crop production to exist as complementary activity.
Shifting Cultivation, Livestock Husbandry and Land Tenure Systems in Metekel
Researcher: Gebre Yintiso
The region of Metekel is largely populated by the agro-pastoralist Gumz people.
The traditional land tenure system combined individual possession with group ownership with equal access to land.
Throughout history the Gumz faced various attempts by governments to control their land and gradually retrenched in remote areas where no access to services were available and where they became increasingly isolated.
After 1974, some provisions for services were put into place. In 1985 a large number of people were resettled in Metekel. For a further 10 years various projects were started by the gopvernemtn and various NGOs. The Tana Beles Project had a devastating effect on the lives of the Gumz depriving them of arable land, traditional hunting grounds and fishing. Deforestation also took its toll and conflict between groups was intensified sometimes leading to serious loss of life and property.
Even with the formation of a new g overnment, little provision in the new Constitution has been made for shifting cultivators. Population growth and migration have caused environmental damage and this leaves little hope for the future of Metekel.
Recommendations made include urgent action to solve land issues to restore security among the Gumz and the improvement of communication networks to reduce isolation.
Pastoralism and Land Tenure Systems in Eritrea.
A Case Study of Labka District in the Sahil Province
Researcher: Woudassie Yohannes
This mountainous region is divided in three ecological zones in which semi-nomadic pastoralism has been practiced for a long time.
Following the long war with Ethiopia, pastoralists have gradually adopted agro-pastoralism. In the highlands they practice rain-fed agriculture and in the plains irrigated agriculture.
Traditionally land was owned communally by the inhabitants of Labka. In the 16th century the Ad Temariam clan moved into the area and their ruler allocated land to his people who could then pass it down in their family.
Under colonial regime, land was deemed to belong to the state granting pastoralists occupational rights. In the 1970s, the EPLF redistributed land in the liberated areas. The people of Wadi Labka claimed customary rights of the area and conflicted with the newly settled people. The EPLF maintained that reallocation of land was done through elected committees and according to household size. After independence, the people of Wadi Labka claimed back their land but the issue could not be resolved and was left to central government to adjudicate on.
At present the debate about pastoral land rights in Eritrea is taking place at government levels and the country should learn some valuable lessons from its neighbours.
A Case Study in Mensura District in the Barka Province
Researcher: Zerabruk Tesfamariam
The Beni-Amer people are the largest group in this district. Initially they were only pastoralists and did not live in settled villages. They grazed their animals on communal ranges. Under Italian rule, the land was made state land and was administered by the Natab who allocated land and collected taxes.
Under British Rule new administrators were brought in and cultivation became more widespread making the demand for farmland higher.
In the 1960s people from neighbouring provinces came to rent land in the area but with prolonged war and recurrent famines these activities were abandoned and people displaced.
The Beni Amer see the land as their own and allow only people from other parts of Eritrea to graze their animals here. Disputes over land are settled by a council of elders.
There is a pastoral council of elders in Mensura whose role is to advise about good grazing land, watyer points and other issues which are important for the lives of pastoralists. As only 30% of land in Mensura is cultivated, people are more dependent on livestock than on crops. They practice rain-fed subsistence farming. Staple foods are mostly sorghum and finger millet.
The resettlement of returnees to the area aims to give each family a plot of land and a house and is likely to render the issue of land acute.
Case Study in Hazemo - Eritrea
Researcher: Tesfay Haile
The district of Hazemo groups a number of villages and is inhabited by Saho, Tigre and Tigrigna people.
Until the late 1980s land was privately owned and people from outside who tilled a plot were required to pay part of their harvest to the village committee.
The EPLF abolished land taxes paid by pastoralists and peasants for grazing livestock and changed the privately owned system for the village-owned system. Land was redistributed to all households in individual villages. However, pastoralists and landless peasants wanted to be the only beneficiaries.
First in 1983, and again in 1990, the EPLF constituted a committee to devise fair redistribution of land between Hazemo and Tedrer. The decision did not satisfy the pastoralists and things have not yet been resolved. Further insecurity among the population is caused by the construction of dams.
Contradiction between cultivation of land and need for pastureland is great and efforts to reconcile both interests have failed so far.
Sudan
Pastoralism and Land Tenure Systems in the Sudan and around the Rahad Irrigation Scheme in Eastern Sudan
Researchers: Prof Mohamed Abusin Yousif El Mahi A El Hafiz Suliman
The traditional land tenure system among pastoralists in the Sudan was first one in which powerful tribes managed land according to customary law. Later on, the Sultan was custodian of land and resources with absolute power for assigning land to individuals or religious groups.
The British administration took the tribal homeland as a base for the institutionalised Native Administration.
After independence the government began to establish large agricultural schemes and used the land traditionally used by nomads. Unregistered land was transferred to either public or state interests without compensation. Even though commercial ranchers were granted rights of passage through mechanised farms, pastoralists were denied this.
Traditional patterns of movement were altered and traditional production systems changed. Pastoralist became farm workers, but a few groups still practice nomadism with large herds.
The system as it stands is bound to give rise to conflict between nomadic pastoralists and mechanised farmers but also between transhumant groups and tenants, and herders and other groups. As the system rests on the expansion of mechanised farming, government policy favours large crop and livestock producers.
Legislation on land tenure reflects misconceptions about the pastoral system. New schemes are favouring large-scale irrigation as in Rahad and New Halfe. The area of the Rahad scheme used to be wet season grazing land. As happened with the Gezira scheme, this has been very detrimental to the pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems even though they are known to offer better opportunities such as food security, provision of social services etc to those affected by privatisation.
Land Tenure Issues in Pastoral and Agro-Pastoral Communities in Western Sudan: the Case of El Dubeibat Rural Council, South Kordofan State.
Researcher: Abbass Musa
El Dubeibat Rural Council is one of three main councils and comprises the plain of Qoz or sand dunes inhabited by the Hawazma and nine other tribes.
Since arriving to the area the Hawazma have switched from camel herding to cattle herding and have taken up agriculture which is gradually becoming the main occupation.
Land is communally owned with the Native Administration being the custodian. Outsiders can have access to land if they comply to the rules of the tribe. The consent of leaders is required to sell or rent land.
After the 1984 and 1991 droughts significant changes occurred in the ecological balance of the region. In Dubeibat where water was relatively abundant a number of people came to settle and they moved towards agriculture where there was money.
The increase in demand for land and the Unregistered Land Act worked against the interest of pastoralists. Their grazing land became scarce. The Nuba Mountains Agricultural Development Project introduced tractors and oxen drawn ploughs thus increasing the demand for large expanses of land. Conflict in the Nuba Mountains has restricted access to pastoralists’ trekking routes.
Herders are badly organised and have little power in the face of commercial interests. There are however, some signs that changes in attitudes are occurring and the idea of organising in herders’ association is becoming accepted.
Although land legislation is being devised little seem to be done to protect the interests of pastoral people. Recommendations are put forward to involve the population in discussion over the implications of policy changes and for the government to try to restrict the number of legislative changes.
Agro-Pastoral Production and Land Tenure Systems in Tokar Province, Sudan
Researcher: Mohammed Hassan Salih.
This province is situated in the semi-desert belt. There are a number of seasonal rivers and the Barka is the largest. Dry season conditions are particularly harsh with high temperatures and dust storms.
The Beja are the largest ethnic group but there are a number of other groups too.
The Beja traditionally used the Barka delta for grazing and growing sorghum and millet. Cotton cultivation was flourishing until the development of the Gezira scheme but it remains a cash crop.
Traditonally land use was based on Beja customary law . There has been fragmentation of land because tenancy was deemed inheritable. In recent years, the decrease in irrigated areas and demographic pressure have exacerbated the demand for land and many conflicts between tribes have taken place.
Some regulations for land registration have been put into place to try to limit the number of disputes. The Beja have always pursued mixed economy activities with pastoralism remaining the dominant mode. They value their herds for economic benefit rather than for social prestige or political power.
But, as shown in other studies, the inhabitants of the region are having to face changes in livelihood brought about by the loss of livestock due to droughts and the expansion of commercial farming whether from government or private sector.
Mission and Objectives